STEP 2 Array initial forces, to calculate the amount of forces necessary to accomplish the

IV. COURSE-OF-ACTION DEVELOPMENT AND ANALYSIS

COURSE-OF-ACTION DEVELOPMENT

OBSERVATION: During the estimate process, staffs must develop courses of action
correctly.

DISCUSSION: One of the most difficult tasks for the staff is developing courses of action
that are complete, feasible, unique, consistent with doctrine, and in compliance with the
commander's guidance. There are different methods to develop courses of action. However, an
effective and quick procedure must be used to develop courses of action that meet the above
criteria under a time constraint.

A COMPLETE COURSE OF ACTION CONSISTS OF:
WHAT: TYPE OF ACTION
WHEN: TIME THE ACTION BEGINS
WHERE: LOCATION OF SECTOR OR ZONE
HOW: METHOD OF EMPLOYMENT (TACTICS)
WHY: COMMANDER'S INTENT

Course-of-action development is the foundation of the plan. Eliminating or inadequately
conducting this step produces inferior estimates which impact on the remainder of the MDMP
in the following ways. The commander, recognizing courses of action that do not adhere to his
planning guidance or are not feasible, responds by having the staff do the work again, which
wastes time. Or, in the absence of adequate planning time, the commander develops a course
of action himself
To develop a complete course of action, the staff must identify what, when, where, how,
and why the unit will execute. A technique to quickly develop complete courses of action is
for the XO to assemble the staff and follow the five-step method. The staff develops the
courses of action together. While the S-3 develops the scheme of maneuver, the remainder of
the staff integrates its assets within its functional area of responsibility.

COURSE-OF-ACTION DEVELOPMENT STEPS:

1. ANALYZE RELATIVE COMBAT POWER
2. ARRAY INITIAL FORCES
3. DEVELOP THE SCHEME OF MANEUVER
4. DETERMINE C2 MEANS AND MANEUVER CONTROL MEASURES
5. PREPARE COURSE-OF-ACTION STATEMENT AND SKETCH

STEP 1 Development begins with the staff analyzing relative-force ratios. The relative-
force ratio is a correlation of friendly combat power and enemy combat power determined by
adding and comparing similar subordinate units. For example, an armor heavy task force
organized with three armor and one mechanized company compared to a single enemy armor
company would have a force ratio of 4:1, before considering any other combat multipliers. By
comparing the relative-force ratio with historical planning ratios, the staff estimates whether it
has an overwhelming force to be successful in its mission.

HISTORICAL PLANNING RATIOS FOR THE ARRAY OF FRIENDLY UNITS AT THE POINT OF CONTACT

FRIENDLY MISSION	FRIENDLY:ENEMY	NOTES

Delay	1:6
Defend	1:3	Prepared defense
Defend	1:2.5	Hasty defense
Attack	3:1	Prepared defense
Attack	2.5:1	Hasty defense
Counterattack	1:1	Flank

STEP 2 Array initial forces, to calculate the amount of forces necessary to accomplish the
mission. The array of ground forces is done two echelons down, with brigades arraying
companies and battalions arraying platoons. Once the staff identifies the forward edge of the
battle area (FEBA) or line of departure/contact (LD/LC), it arrays forces at the expected point
of initial contact. As the staff arrays forces, it considers force ratios for each task. During an
attack the staff calculates the amount of forces required to support by fire, conduct a breach in
stride, or assault the objective. However, units are not identified, and task organization is not
done at this point. The staff does not assign missions to arrayed units but gains an appreciation
for the amount of forces to allocate to accomplish the mission. Once the array is completed,
the staff has an idea of the amount of forces required. If the amount of forces available is less
than the amount required, the staff plans for shortfalls and the use of combat multipliers (close
air support, smoke, command, control and communications countermeasures). If the amount of
forces available exceeds the amount required, the staff uses the excess to weight the main
effort or place them in reserve.

STEP 3 Develop the scheme of maneuver using the array of forces from Step 2. The
scheme of maneuver is a narrative description of how the forces arrayed will accomplish the
commander's intent. Ensure the scheme of maneuver addresses the elements of the battlefield
framework (deep operations, covering force/security force, close operations, rear operations,
and reserve).
While developing the scheme of maneuver, address all maneuver forces, using any that
may have been left over from the array in Step 2. Identify forces by selecting the type
(mechanized, armor, infantry) necessary for each task. However, do not identify the specific
unit, unless the unit is organized and equipped to accomplish that specific task. The
commander will identify specific units when he decides on the task organization.

STEP 4 Determine the command and control means and maneuver control measures. The
S-3 selects subordinate commands by reviewing the array of forces and grouping the arrayed
platoons into companies or companies into battalions. He organizes subordinate units
containing between two and five units to provide adequate span of control. Once subordinate
commands are determined, the S-3 adds the minimum graphic control measures to control the
operation, achieve synchronization or minimize the force's exposure to fratricide. Together
with the staff he identifies unit boundaries, axes of advance and fire control measures.

HELP THE COMMANDER UNDERSTAND THE COURSE OF ACTION BY PROVIDING A SKETCH

STEP 5 Complete the course of action by preparing a statement and sketch. The statement
and sketch explain what, when, where, how and why as they relate to the operation. The
statement explains the course of action from the beginning of the operation to mission
completion. The sketch contains the minimum control measures, added during Step 4, to
explain the scheme of maneuver. The S-3 has developed a possible course of action when he
completes this step. He then repeats the procedure until he develops the number of courses of
action specified by the commander.

LESSONS:
* Staff: Develop courses of action together to integrate all battlefield operating
systems.
* Staff: Ensure the course of action is complete, consistent with doctrine, complies
with the commander's guidance, feasible, and unique.
* Staff: Develop courses of action that identify what, when, where, how, and why
the unit will execute.
* Commander: If time is short, remain with the staff and have it assist you in
course-of-action development.

COURSE-OF-ACTION ANALYSIS

OBSERVATION: Commanders and staffs must war-game correctly during course-
of-action analysis.

DISCUSSION: Wargaming is the most valuable step within the course-of-action analysis.
Observations from the CTCs indicate that few staffs understand how to war-game effectively,
and that many staff officers are not involved in the procedure. By wargaming, the staff takes a
course of action and begins to develop a detailed plan. Additionally, it can better synchronize
the course of action when the entire staff is involved in wargaming. Information recorded
during the wargame provides the information for the development of paragraph three
(execution) of the operations order, the execution or synchronization matrices, and the decision
support template. Because of the importance of its results, and the time it requires, more time
is allocated than for any other step. Wargaming results in the identification of tasks, combat
power requirements, critical events and priority efforts, task organization and command and
support relationships, decision points and possible fratricide locations.

WARGAMING RULES
* REMAIN UNBIASED. WARGAMERS DO NOT ALLOW PERSONALITY OR
THEIR SENSING OF "WHAT THE BOSS WANTS" TO INFLUENCE THEM.
* ACCURATELY RECORD ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES AS THEY
BECOME EVIDENT.
* CONTINUALLY ASSESS FEASIBILITY. DURING THE WARGAME, IF A
COURSE OF ACTION BECOMES INFEASIBLE, WARGAMERS MUST STOP,
REJECT IT, AND BEGIN THE NEXT COURSE OF ACTION.
* AVOID DRAWING PREMATURE CONCLUSIONS AND GATHERING FACTS
TO SUPPORT SUCH CONCLUSIONS.
* AVOID COMPARING ONE COURSE OF ACTION WITH ANOTHER
DURING THE WARGAME. WAIT UNTIL THE COMPARISON PHASE.

WARGAMING SEQUENCE
GATHER THE TOOLS
LIST ALL FRIENDLY FORCES
LIST THE ASSUMPTIONS
LIST KNOWN CRITICAL EVENTS AND DECISION POINTS
SELECT THE WARGAMING METHOD
SELECT A TECHNIQUE TO RECORD AND DISPLAY THE RESULTS
WAR-GAME THE BATTLE AND ASSESS THE RESULTS

STEP 1 Wargaming begins by gathering the tools to be used by the staff. The first tool
required is a planning map or sketch of the area of operations. An enlarged map or sketch
works best because the entire staff can see the course of action. Post the situation template for
the selected enemy course of action and friendly unit dispositions on overlays, then cover the
map with acetate. Have the S-3 sketch the course of action on the acetate and revise the sketch
during wargaming.
Displaying details of the operation order using terrain enlargements is more effective than
using a 1:50,000 scale map. Two methods to develop an enlargement of the area of operations
are to have an assistant sketch the significant terrain by free hand. Then add the situation
template and cover the sketch with acetate. An easier, yet resource-dependent method, is to
make a transparent slide of the area of operation, then project it onto butcher paper. The
assistant traces the significant terrain to provide a terrain enlargement. The enlargements are
also useful later when briefing the operations order.

STEP 2 The XO assembles the staff so it can provide its tactical and technical expertise.
The staff begins by listing all friendly forces. The S-3 lists the friendly forces available,
identified during mission analysis, while the staff assists him by listing all combat, combat
support, and combat service support units. However, if time is short, the staff only considers
the combat assets that have the highest probability of influencing the outcome of the battle.

STEP 3 List the assumptions necessary to help shape the course of action. The
assumptions provided by the staff are those identified during the development of estimates.
The most significant assumption is the situation template and enemy courses of action. When
the S-2 presents the situation template, he is giving the commander what he believes is the
probable enemy course of action. This remains an assumption until collected information
confirms the template.

STEP 4 Identify the critical events and the information required by the commander to
make decisions, for each course of action. Critical events are essential tasks within the course
of action that require detailed analysis. Decision points identify where the commander must
decide to initiate an activity (call for fire, displace a subordinate maneuver unit) to ensure
synchronized execution. The staff uses various time and distance factors to estimate where the
forward line of own troops (FLOT) or a portion of the FLOT will be when the commander
must make a decision. These locations are known as decision points.
Although critical events are identified during this step, some are identified prior to
wargaming. Examples of critical events that can be identified in advance for a defensive
operation are reward passage of counterreconnaissance forces, commitment of the reserve,
displacement of forces, and initiation of the counterattack. In the offense, critical events are
forward passage of lines, obstacle breaching, assault on the objective, and consolidation.

STEP 5 Select the wargaming method based on time available and type of operation
(offense or defense). There are three wargaming techniques to choose from: avenue in depth,
belt, and box. Each technique has advantages depending on the type of operation.

The box technique is the easiest to use when little time is available. It analyzes selected critical events, those considered most important to the staff, given the available amount of time. The S-3 draws boxes around the critical events so the staff knows which will be analyzed. Each is then analyzed by the entire staff.
	The avenue-in-depth technique focuses the staff on one avenue of approach beginning with the main effort. The technique allows the staff to war-game the battle in sequence from the assembly area to the objective during the offense and throughout the main battle area during the defense. Even though this technique can be used for both offense and defense, it is suited better for the offense. Because
all critical events along the avenue of approach are analyzed, the avenue-in-depth technique requires more time than the box technique.

The most lengthy, but effective, technique for
the whole force is the belt, because it enhances
synchronization by analyzing all forces that affect
specific events. The S-3 divides the area of
operation into belts the width of the zone or
sector. The belts are constructed along established
phase lines or placed adjacent to each other
covering specific phases. Overlap the belts and
analyze them and the intersection for a more
detailed analysis. The staff war-games all events

within the belt simultaneously. This technique requires more time than the previous
techniques, as it analyzes more critical events within the area of operation.

USE AN EXECUTION OR A SYNCHRONIZATION MATRIX DURING WARGAMING TO HELP THE STAFF WRITE THE ORDER.

STEP 6 Select a technique to record and display the results, to provide the staff
information to compare courses of action. A quick and simple method is the sketch-note
technique. As the staff war-games a critical event, an assistant writes notes about the specific
actions, locations, and tasks taking place. These notes are recorded on a wargame worksheet,
terrain sketch, execution or synchronization matrix.

STEP 7 War-gaming and assessing the results are the steps in which the wargame takes
place. All previous steps prepare the staff for this one, which requires the staff to visualize the
battle and determine what actions to accomplish to succeed in the mission. An effective
technique is to have the entire staff participate, the S-2 serving as the uncooperative enemy
commander. Staff officers analyze each critical event by determining how the tasks within the
critical event occur and then advise the S-3 on the employment of assets within their
functional area of responsibility. Each staff officer also assists the S-2 in determining how the
enemy would respond to his action.
Analyzing critical events and associated tasks requires staff officers to understand the
capabilities of their type of unit and equipment and like enemy units. A battalion engineer
officer, analyzing an obstacle breach (critical event), identifies reducing the obstacle as the
task for which he is responsible. Organized with two Mine-Clearing Line Charges (MICLICs)
and two mine plows, he calculates the engineer company will breach two lanes through a wire
and mine obstacle in 12 minutes. This information provides the S-3 and the Fire Support
Officer (FSO) the planning factor for the amount of smoke necessary to obscure the enemy's
observation of the obstacle. It also provides the S-3 a time to decide to move the assault
element forward to the breach. Without an understanding of all the planning factors within a
critical event, the staff will not provide the detail necessary to synchronize the plan.
The sequence of the wargame begins with friendly action followed by enemy reaction
followed by friendly counteraction. The S-3 selects the technique (box, avenue in depth, or
belt) and the starting point. If the box technique is used, the starting point is the most
important critical event. If the belt or avenue-in-depth technique is used, the starting point is
the unit location (defensive positions or assembly area).

Using a task force attack against a motorized rifle company (MRC), an example of the
staff participation of the action-reaction-counteraction sequence is:

ACTION	The S-3, S-2, and FSO identify the first critical event war-gamed to be the assault against the MRC. The first friendly action is suppression of the MRC with indirect fire.
REACTION	The S-2 reacts with enemy indirect fire against the task force while it moves into the firesack.
COUNTERACTION	The S-3 counteracts with an armor company moving to an attack by fire position and suppressing a flank motorized rifle platoon.
REACTION	The S-2 reacts by shifting indirect fire to the attack by fire position and the main effort of the task force.
COUNTERACTION	The S-3 and FSO counteract by using counter- battery fires against the enemy's artillery and electronic warfare to disrupt communications while continuing the assault against the MRC.
REACTION	As indirect fires are lifted, the S-2 reacts with direct fire against the main effort as it assaults his position.
This sequence is continued until the critical event and all others are completed. This staff interaction is key to detailed planning. One staff officer cannot war-game alone.

LESSONS:
* Commander and staff: Use the war-gaming sequence to develop and begin
synchronizing the operation.
* Commander and staff: Follow the war-gaming rules to conduct the wargame.
* XO: Have the entire staff involved in the wargame.

COURSE-OF-ACTION COMPARISON

OBSERVATION: Staffs must compare courses of action correctly to provide viable
recommendations to the commander.

DISCUSSION: Often a course-of-action comparison is reduced to a vote by staff officers
rather than by an actual comparison. A vote for the course of action the staff likes best does
not always result in what will be the most successful course of action. Detailed analysis during
comparison identifies a course of action that satisfies the criteria better than one the staff
believed was best.
After courses of action are war-gamed, the staff determines which one to recommend to
the commander. This requires the staff to continue to analyze and compare each course of
action. A quick and effective method to do this is to use a decision matrix. The staff develops
criteria for comparison using commanders' guidance, critical events, and other significant
factors pertaining to the mission. The staff uses criteria to determine advantages and
disadvantages of each course of action. It is the comparison of the advantages and disadvan-
tages that helps the staff determine the course of action with the highest probability of success.

THE DECISION MATRIX WILL HELP THE STAFF RECOMMEND THE COURSE OF ACTION WITH THE HIGHEST PROBABILITY FOR SUCCESS.

To speed the comparison, prepare blank matrices and identify the criteria for the operation.
Place the matrices on poster board and cover them with acetate (to be used again), or place
them on butcher board. Make the matrices large enough to be seen by the entire staff and also
so they can be used again during the decision brief to the commander. The S-3 then lists the
criteria under the factors column and sketches the course of action in the space provided.
With the matrices prepared, the XO assembles the staff and it determines which course of
action best satisfies each criterion. The quickest method to determine which course of action
best meets the criteria is to quantify them ranking each one. The course of action that best
meets the criterion is ranked No.1, the next supportive, a No. 2, and the one that least meets
the criterion, a No. 3. Once all courses of action are ranked against the criteria, the ranks are
totaled. The lowest score identifies the course of action that best fulfills the criteria and will be
recommended to the commander.

LESSONS:
* Staff: Conduct a detailed analysis with the entire staff to determine the recom-
mended course of action.
* Staff: Use a decision matrix with criteria developed from commanders' guidance,
critical events, and other significant factors pertaining to the mission to analyze
the courses of action.
* Staff: Quantify each course of action by ranking them for each criterion.

V. PREPARE PLAN/ORDER/FRAGO

OBSERVATION: Commanders and staffs must
be organized and prepared to produce operations
orders quickly.

DISCUSSION: Through preparation and
organization, commanders and staffs can
significantly decrease the time required to prepare
operations orders. This begins during training and
the development of standing operating procedures
on how the staff produces an order. When the
commander provides his planning guidance, he
specifies the type of order he wants issued. He

decides by considering the amount of time available and the capabilities of the staff. Based on
the decision, the staff implements the SOP for that type of order.

PREFORMATTED ORDERS

If the commander decides producing a written order is necessary, the staff speeds its
production by using a preformatted order. The preformatted order is based on the
five-paragraph operations order, but designed for the way the battalion/brigade presents its
order. For example, the unit may add matrices (execution, synchronization, fire support,
logistical support, or medical support) to augment each paragraph and better explain portions
of its plan. With the basic format prepared, the staff fills in the blanks to complete the order.

ORGANIZING REPRODUCTION

The organization of reproduction and the unit's reproduction process can further speed the
MDMP. If a written or matrix order is produced, requiring the staff to complete separate
portions, then centralize the collection of the staffs completed portions. Designate a member
of the staff to collect, organize, review quality and present all completed portions of the order
to the S-3. The order is then given to the commander to review and approve. Once approved,
the completed order is reproduced. .Organizing production ensures that a complete order is
reproduced as quickly as possible.

The actual reproduction also needs to be centralized. The operations sergeant identifies
someone to be responsible for reproduction and provides him with a work area. Select
someone other than the person responsible for compiling the order because the reproduction
NCO will often have to work simultaneously with the person compiling the order while
sections of the order are being published. Often the reproduction NCO receives the order from
the person collecting the order who may give it to him in sections rather than wait for the
order to be completed before reproduction. Whether he receives the order together or in
sections, he reproduces and collates the entire order before it is disseminated. Centralizing
order reproduction under the control of one person will initially require a great deal of work,
but it ensures that sections of the order are not lost.
When selecting a location for reproduction, consider the equipment necessary and the
amount of distraction it will cause the staff. Place the reproduction area outside of the TOC so
that the staff can continue to coordinate and the TOC can operate without distraction. Using a
mimeograph machine or photo copier within the TOC will take up space and distract the staff
from its preparations. Place the reproduction area in a tent or a built-up truck or trailer (in
heavy units) so it can operate at night with interior light. This will also provide enough room
for the person reproducing the order. Although moving the reproduction area away from the
TOC requires extra equipment, it benefits the staff in its effort to prepare for the mission.

METHODS OF REPRODUCTION

A unit's means of reproduction can also speed the production of the order. The common
method is the mimeograph (Spirit Master stencil) for reproduction of the order text and a
Diazo copier or hand-drawn copies on acetate for graphics. Because of its durability,
simplicity, and speed, the mimeograph method is among the best for reproducing orders.
However, some photo copiers can reproduce nearly as fast with greater clarity.
For graphics, the fastest method for high-quality reproduction is to use a photo copier. To
make graphic reproductions, copy the map of the area of operation, then draw the control
measures onto the copy. Often this will result in several 8-inch x 11-inch pages that will have
to be taped together after production.

HIGH-QUALITY GRAPHICS CAN BE PRODUCED ON MAPS, REPLACING ACETATE OVERLAYS.

To begin preparing graphics early, have the S-3 Air add control measures from the brigade
or division graphics (boundaries, phase lines, objectives, battle positions) that will be
necessary for the order being produced by the staff. He then makes several copies for the S-3
to draw the final operational graphics. The S-3 returns the graphics to the S-3 Air who copies
it for the FSO, S-4, and S-2 to use in the development of their graphics. The result of this
technique will be high-quality graphics on a map eliminating the need for acetate overlays.
The technique eliminates errors common in hand-drawn copies on acetate overlays. It also
enables the unit to provide graphics to more subordinates - for example, battalion operational
graphics for platoon leaders and logistical graphics for first sergeants.

LESSONS:
* Commander: Specify through guidance the type of order to issue (written
five-paragraph, oral, overlay or matrix).
* Staff: Develop a preformatted order to use for written orders.
* Staff: Organize reproduction by centralizing collection of the portions of the order
and its production.
* Staff: Select an area to reproduce the order that will not interfere with the staff's
work.
* Staff: Use a mimeograph or a photocopier to speed reproduction of order text.
* Staff: Use a photocopier to reproduce graphics.

VI. APPROVE PLAN/ORDER/FRAGO

OBSERVATION: Commanders must
approve the order after changes have been
made by the staff.

DISCUSSION: A common problem for
commanders and staffs is that the commander
does not review and approve the operations
order after it has been prepared. Additionally,
commanders realize portions of the order do
not meet their approval when they hear it
during the orders brief. They then attempt to
correct the order during the briefing, which
confuses subordinate commanders and wastes
time.
This problem is easily solved by the

commander providing clear detailed planning guidance and remaining close to the staff during
planning. The commander that is involved with planning from the beginning will not be
surprised by the order during the briefing.
The solution for the commander who cannot remain close to the staff is to allocate time to
approve the order. The commander must review the order with the S-3 and have the staff
available to clarify details prior to the order being produced (or if that is not possible, prior to
the order briefing). By reviewing and then approving the order, the commander can be certain
that his intent is clearly communicated.

LESSONS:
* Commander: Provide clear and detailed planning guidance, and remain close to
the staff during the MDMP.
* Commander: Allocate time to review and approve the order before it is
reproduced and briefed.

VII. ISSUE PLAN/ORDER/FRAGO

OBSERVATION: Commanders and staffs
should not take excessive time briefing
operations orders.

DISCUSSION: The order briefing is an event
that, if not practiced and organized, takes an
exorbitant amount of time. The commander
and staff can make the briefing quick and
clear by reducing distractions, sequencing the
briefers, and using graphic aids. The
commander selects the location of the
operations order brief and can reduce
distractions by his decision. However, his
practical options are to brief at a vantage point

or at the tactical operations center (TOC). When possible, the commander presents the order at
a vantage point. This helps subordinates understand the order by decreasing distractions and
by viewing the terrain as the operation is explained to them.
If a vantage point is selected, use the terrain to your advantage by first arranging maps and
overlays so they don't obstruct the audience's view of the area of operation. Second, begin the
order brief by orienting everyone to key terrain features. And third, identify a key piece of
terrain when it is mentioned during the order briefing, both on the map and in the area of
operation.
If the commander decides to give the briefing in the TOC, prepare the briefing area to
reduce distractions. Clear the TOC to provide room for the staff to brief and to fit all attending
subordinates. In a heavy unit, ensure that all vehicle ramps are up and radio operators use head
sets to reduce radio volume. Shut down vehicles and generators or sandbag generators to
silence them as much as possible. All of these precautions will allow the commander and staff
to give the order with limited noise.

To speed and better explain the order, organize the staff in a sequence to follow the order
format. The commander determines whether to issue the written order before or after the
briefing because there are advantages and disadvantages to both methods. If provided before
the order, a subordinate commander can give it to an assistant or LO to return to the company
or TOC. The staff can then begin its preparations. However, the written order can also become
a distraction when subordinates attempt to read it during the briefing.
Sequence the staff for the briefing to closely follow the five-paragraph order. The
following is an example:

CDR (XO)	GIVES TASK ORGANIZATION, SITUATION (FRIENDLY FORCES), AND MISSION
S-2	GIVES TOC TIME, IPB (EXCEPT DECISION SUPPORT TEMPLATE)
CDR	COMMANDER'S INTENT
S-3	EXECUTION (CONCEPT OF OPERATION, SCHEME OF MANEUVER)
FSO	FIRES
ENGINEER	MOBILITY, COUNTERMOBILITY, AND SURVIVABILITY PLANS
ADAO	AIR DEFENSE PLAN AND ENEMY AIR SITUATION
S-2	COLLECTION
CHEMICAL	NBC
S-3	COORDINATING INSTRUCTIONS
S-4>	SERVICE SUPPORT
XO	COMMAND AND SIGNAL AND REVIEW OF PREPARATION TIME LINE
CDR	REVIEW OF COMMANDER'S INTENT AND DECISION SUPPORT TEMPLATE

The commander controls the audience, limiting questions and stopping questions that will
distract from the briefing. Although the commander gives his intent during the briefing, he
reviews it to provide detailed guidance to each subordinate. The commander expresses his
intent by repeating specific tasks and purposes for subordinates and emphasizing the results.
The commander then ties each task together in sequence to explain how he expects to
accomplish the mission. By addressing each subordinate, the commander ensures that each one
understands how his mission relates to the commander's intent. Also, reviewing commander's
intent at the end of the briefing will stimulate questions.

"Whenever possible, subordinate leaders should receive their orders face to face from their commanders on the ground chosen for the operation." FM 100-5

ENLARGED MAPS AND CHARTS ADD CLARITY WHEN BRIEFING A LARGE AUDIENCE.

Battalion and brigade staffs can expect to brief from 15 to 30 people, making the 1:50,000
scale map impractical to use as the only graphic aid. To display the detail necessary to explain
the plan, use either a 1:10,000 scale, an enlarged 1:50,000 scale map, or a sketch. For
frequently used training areas, have the Training Aids Support Center (TASC) enlarge the
required map or enlarge it using a photo copier. A simpler method is to draw sketches for the
areas that will be highlighted during the order. For example, sketch critical events, such as the
breach or assault on the objective, on butcher paper to show the detail of the plan.
To assist the staff in briefing the plan, the S-3 can use charts with the unit's mission and
task organization. This helps especially when the order is not accompanied with a written
order, or the written order is given to subordinates after the briefing.

LESSONS:
* Commander: When feasible, use a vantage point to brief the operations order. It
will reduce distractions and allow subordinates to see the terrain.
* Staff: Organize the briefing to follow the written order format.
* Commander: Control the briefing to stop distractions.
* Commander: Review your intent and address each subordinate directly to ensure
he understands how his mission relates to your intent.
* Staff: Use graphic aids to better present the order.

VIII. MISSION RECEIVED BY SUBORDINATE HQ

OBSERVATION: Commanders and staffs must ensure that subordinates understand the
details of the plan.

DISCUSSION: Although the commander and staff present a complete and clear order,
subordinates may still not understand the details. The command climate and the tempo of
operations may also impact on the ability of subordinates to understand the plan. In some
units, subordinates, especially those recently task-organized, may avoid asking questions to
escape appearing ignorant. Additionally, sustained or continuous operations cause fatigue
reducing subordinates' ability to comprehend the order.

Commanders and staffs can assist their
subordinates to understand the plan by
conducting additional briefings and
rehearsals. Back briefs, confirmation briefs,
and rehearsals conducted by the commander
and staff assist subordinates in understanding
the order.

CONFIRMATION BRIEF

The commander conducts a confirmation brief with subordinates shortly after the
operations order briefing. During the confirmation brief, subordinates tell the commander
what their mission is. The commander provides subordinates time to analyze their mission
while they are still at the order brief. Then subordinates brief him on their mission, tasks and
their understanding of his intent. If there are misunderstandings, the commander corrects them
before the subordinate commander begins planning.

BACKBRIEF

After subordinate commanders have had time to develop their plans, they meet with the
commander collectively to review their plans. The subordinate commanders brief the
commander on the details of how they will accomplish their mission. It is beneficial for the
commander to meet with all his subordinate commanders together, rather than one at a time. A
commander will identify a problem that will require coordination with other commanders. If
everyone is at the same location, the problem can be solved quickly while at the backbrief.

REHEARSALS

The final event to emphasize and conduct to ensure subordinates understand the plan is the
rehearsal. The commander identifies the type of rehearsal during his planning guidance. There
are seven types of rehearsals a commander can choose from: full, key leader, terrain model,
sketch map, map, radio and backbrief. His decision will depend on the amount of time and
resources available.

The most resource-intensive rehearsal is the full rehearsal which requires the use of all
units in the battalion or brigade, terrain similar to the area of operation, and sufficient time to
drill the execution of the operation. Although the full rehearsal requires a tremendous amount
of resources, it provides the most detailed understanding of the mission.
The second rehearsal option is the key leader rehearsal. This method requires less
resources and time, demanding that only the unit's subordinate leaders participate. The
commander designates the level of involvement for subordinates, but does conduct the
rehearsal on the same type of terrain as the full rehearsal.
The terrain model rehearsal is the third type of rehearsal. The terrain model is similar to
the key leader rehearsal, but requires less terrain. The model is built large enough to allow all
participants to observe or walk through the model. The terrain model must depict all the
information shown on the operations graphics (phase lines, objectives, key terrain features).

A LARGE TERRAIN MODEL HELPS REINFORCE THE PARTICIPANTS' PERCEPTION OF THE MISSION.

The sketch map and map rehearsals are similar to the terrain model rehearsals except the
commander replaces the model with an enlarged sketch or a map. During these rehearsals, the
commander displays the sketch or map with overlay and talks subordinates through a
sequential, interactive, verbal execution of the operation. Both of these types of rehearsals are
quicker, yet they cannot accommodate the amount of participants as the previous rehearsals.
The radio rehearsal is the sixth type of rehearsal. It requires very little time and resources,
but demands that the commander and all participants have the means to communicate with
each other and a copy of the operations order. The commander and subordinates rehearse by
verbally executing critical portions of the operation.
The backbrief rehearsal is the final type of rehearsal. It requires the least amount of
resources and is conducted by the commander and subordinates reviewing the operation.
During the backbrief, subordinates brief the commander on how they intend to accomplish the
mission before they issue their own operations order to his unit. By conducting a backbrief,
the commander can ensure that his subordinate commanders' intent is properly nested with that
of his own.

LESSONS:
* Commander: Conduct confirmation briefs and backbriefs with subordinates.
* Commander: Conduct rehearsals to synchronize the efforts of the unit.

CONCLUSION

The techniques presented are feasible and used by various maneuver units as standing
operating procedures. Some are easily learned and can be used with newly formed staffs while
others require training before being executed properly. But all allow commanders and staffs to
speed the military decisionmaking process without eliminating a necessary step.

"The teams and staffs through which the modern commander absorbs information and exercises his authority must be a beautifully interlocked, smooth- working mechanism. Ideally, the whole should be practically a single mind." GENERAL Dwight David Eisenhower

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